The efficiency of any engine company rests in its ability to operate effectively in any building in its municipality or response area. This starts with having hose loads to operate effectively at private dwellings, multiple dwellings (with and without standpipes) and commercial buildings. But first, a positive water supply needs to be established.
The first-due engine has several choices—initiating a forward lay (department policy will dictate), taking your own hydrant via direct connection to a hydrant in close proximity of the building, or relying on an incoming engine to provide a supply line. Most importantly, the hydrant should be tested and flushed before connecting to ensure serviceability and to eliminate any debris that may be in the barrel and could cause an obstruction to a strainer or combination nozzle. It is a good policy to have members flush/test hydrants on routine runs, as this may alleviate a problem, such as a defective hydrant, before it is really needed, and it also serves as a training aid for newer members. Know the hydrants’ capability (i.e., main size) via water main maps or simply by knowing your district.
It is also a good practice to “gate” any unused outlets for augmentation of pumps later in the operation or to use as a secondary drain to support the drain at the bottom of the barrel when the operation is complete. A properly positioned first-due engine on a hydrant with the hosebed facing the fire building will be a big asset for the efficiency of hoseline operations.
Private dwellings
Pre-connected handlines are usually sufficient for fires in private dwellings. The main factor in estimating a stretch for a fire in a private dwelling is the distance from the engine to the point of entry. Factors like setback from the street, apparatus positioning and street conditions also play a part in determining this distance. Also, the size of the dwelling and where the hoseline is going also play a part in the length of the stretch. Do you have break-apart nozzles that enable you to add a length of hose without shutting down at the pump, or should the stretch be from a static hose load? Pre-connected lines of 200 feet are usually sufficient for average size dwellings with a distance of 50 to 75 feet setback from the attack engine.
The best point of entry for most fires in private dwellings is the front door. We use the interior stairs as a point of confinement for the fire and as our route to the second floor and attic areas. The stairs to the second floor are usually within a short distance of the front door. For example, if the fire is located on the first floor, the primary job of the first line is to confine the fire to the first floor by preventing the fire from extending up the interior stairs to the second floor and thereby protecting the primary searches above the fire. Flaking the line out on the front lawn or in front of the house and charging the line before entry usually works best, except for fires that originate in the attic, where it may be better to stretch dry to the second floor before starting water.
For basement fires, first attempt to stretch an attack line to the seat of the fire from an interior entrance. If this is not possible, consider advancing a line to the door at the top of the basement stairs to attack the fire. Use extreme caution when advancing to the basement stairs, as you will be navigating above the advancing fire below, and there is a strong possibility of floor collapse. The exception would be if the house has a “half-landing” exterior entrance. This is an excellent vantage point for attacking a basement fire, as it also serves to protect the interior stairs leading to the first floor.
The attack line of choice—usually 1¾- or 2-inch hose—should be capable of flowing 150–180 gpm. A 2½-inch line should be used for heavy fire conditions requiring a knockdown from the exterior, especially for older homes containing true dimensional lumber. And again, a break-apart nozzle on the 2½-inch line is beneficial because when the line needs to advance to the interior, two lengths of smaller diameter line can be attached to the nozzle rather than stretching an additional line.
When stretching any attack hoseline, it is imperative that the nozzle firefighter take one length of hose with them to the drop point, or the area that the lead length is dropped to be flaked out, charged with water and advanced into the fire area. This is especially important for apartment fires.
Multiple dwellings
For fires in multiple dwellings, the size of the structure plays a large part in estimating the stretch along with the location of the fire and where the initial line needs to be stretched. Pre-connected lines may be sufficient for fires on the first or second floor, or for fires in “garden-style” multiple dwellings without a long setback. The basic stretch estimation formula is the distance from the engine to the front door + one length per floor + one additional length for the fire floor/apartment. For larger buildings, an additional length may be needed due to the overall size of the building and variables such as whether the building has a well hole adjacent to the interior stairs or if a rope stretch is going to be used to the floor below. For reasons stated above, the best answer is to be familiar with large multiple dwellings in your district.
For lines stretched above the second floor or for a fire in any larger building above the first floor, an extended stretch option will be needed. I recommend having a static bed of five or six lengths of 1¾-inch connected via a reducer to five or more lengths of 2½-inch for the first line. A “bell”-style reducer will work best. This arrangement will ensure that you do not run out of hose. It can also be deployed wherever an extended stretch is needed, and ensures that you will reach your destination without stretching short and will not compromise excessive friction loss by filling it out with the larger line. Also, I find it faster to deploy than using a wye or water thief. Other benefits include the fact that it’s easier for the pump operator to calculate pressures and it eliminates the possibility of having a gate valve get accidentally shut down. It also ensures an adequate flow via the “trunk line” (supplies the 1¾-inch line via a reducer or gated wye), which helps manage friction loss for flows of 150–180 gpm. It also ensures a redundant supply for a backup line. In other words, the backup line is truly a separate line. This or similar arrangements are used by larger departments such as Boston or the FDNY.
Another option besides using a gated wye or water thief for the initial line is to simply use a 2½-inch line with a break-apart nozzle and two lengths of bundled 1¾- or 2-inch line. This arrangement can also be used for the backup or additional lines.
A water thief or gated wye on a 3-inch will be more beneficial where additional lines are needed on floors above for extension purposes.
The initial attack line should be stretched to the door of the fire apartment to protect the interior public stairs, and confine and extinguish the fire. The route of the initial attack line will need to be determined, as the front door may not always be the best option, especially if the building contains stairs wrapping around an elevator shaft or the main stairwell is in the rear of the building and/or contains a well hole. This decision is especially important if staffing is an issue. If the backup line is not needed on the fire floor, it can be stretched to the apartment above for fire extension. Engine companies should be combined and added to get the first line in operation as quickly as needed for fires in multiple dwellings. Multiple dwellings equipped with standpipes will be addressed later.
Commercial buildings
Commercial buildings—large mercantile buildings, factories, warehouses, older-style taxpayers and “big box” stores—require flows from 2½-inch lines for a timely knockdown and firefighter safety. Fire loading is typically higher in commercial buildings, as is the need for greater reach of the stream. Chances are, if the building lacks sprinklers, you are going to have one shot to knock down the fire, meaning if the fire is not knocked down with the initial attack line or within 15 minutes or so, the building will be lost and it will become a defensive operation.
The keys to operating a 2½-inch line are proper training and drilling, pumping at the proper pressure and combining engine companies to operate one line on an interior attack. A 2½-inch line with a smooth bore 1 1/8-inch tip with 40 psi at the nozzle will flow approximately 240 gpm with minimal nozzle reaction—a very adequate fire stream. After knockdown, larger lines can be reduced to smaller lines.
Most commercial buildings are one story in height; therefore, to estimate a stretch, add the distance from the engine + the length + width of the building. If the line is going to the cellar, based on the location of the cellar entrance, additional hose will be needed.
Big box stores, large warehouses and factories can present additional challenges when stretching a line: Is enough hose available in the bed? How much staffing is available for the initial stretch? For example, for a big box store or large warehouse, it may be quicker and more practical to stretch in an entrance other than the front door.
Standpipe operations
First and foremost, have a standard operating guideline, and exercise it at routine fire runs. Have members bring in the proper equipment every time and go to the proper place. Remember, standpipes are auxiliary appliances; as such, make a determination if a hand stretch from an engine is more practical, especially for lower-floor or below-grade fires. When using a standpipe system, problems can be encountered—a closed valve, a frozen or hard-to-open or missing valve wheel, debris in the system or a defective FDC. (I have seen a ground-mount FDC blow right out of the ground once when pressurized and have encountered several problems with valve wheels and FD swivel connections.)
NFPA 14: Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems recommends the use of 2½-inch hose when working off a standpipe due to minimum pressure requirements. Other factors that support the use of the larger line include reflex time when operating in a high rise, combined with hotter fires due to fire resistive construction, possible wind-driven conditions and pressure problems within the system.
Three lengths of 2½-inch hose are usually sufficient in older buildings equipped with standpipes. In newer construction where buildings contain complete or partial sprinkler systems, hose stretches will be longer due to increased distances between standpipe outlets and stairwells. Again, being familiar with your buildings is the key to operating efficiently and pairing engine companies will be necessary to operate the first line. Moreover, additional engine companies may be needed to maintain the operation of the first line depending on smoke conditions as ventilation is usually a problem in high rise or larger, modern multiple dwellings and first-in companies run low on air.
One important piece of standpipe equipment that should be carried in the standpipe equipment bag is the in-line pressure gauge. This is utilized to ensure proper pressure in the attack line. The proper pressure for the line can be marked on the gauge. The proper pressure will need to be set while the line is flowing water. A radio-equipped member should operate the valve, opening the valve wheel to increase pressure/flow or closing the valve to decrease it, based on the request of the nozzle team. The standpipe outlet should always be flushed in the same manner as a hydrant.
It is also imperative to always hook up on the floor below the fire. If members need to exit the fire area for an emergency, or become low on air, we are taught to follow the hoseline to safety. The floor below is the area of safety and refuge, and hopefully free of heavy smoke. Also, we want to be able to see when making our standpipe connection and operate the valve wheel and pressure gauge.
Additionally, a smoothbore nozzle is highly recommended so it has the ability to pass rust or scale and minor debris, commonly found in older standpipe systems. This is also recommended by NFPA 14. When possible, use a stairwell that goes to the roof to ease in ventilation. Stairs should be designated attack and evacuation by the first-due companies, and the initial attack line should use the attack stairs. Having a firefighter assigned to the door position is important when using a 2½-inch line in multiple dwellings. It is this firefighter’s job to position at the apartment door and ensure that the nozzle team has hose to advance. These are some important keys to a successful standpipe operation.
In sum
The keys to effective engine operations are preparation, specifically with having the proper equipment and hose loads on your engines set up to operate in any type of buildings encountered in your community or response area, and training and drilling in areas such as hydrant hookups, stretching and operating hoselines of various sizes, and becoming familiar with the larger buildings in your area.
