The earliest form of organized fire protection in North America consisted of citizen bucket brigades. When a fire occurred, all able-bodied citizens would run to the scene with buckets. A double line would be formed from a water source and filled buckets would be passed up the line to the fire, where the contents were thrown at the burning structure. The empty buckets would be quickly passed back, via the second line of people, to be refilled.

The first fire apparatus utilized in the U.S. were hand pumpers that were built in England and shipped by boat to New York during the early 1700s. The hand pumper had long, parallel handles that required many volunteers to pump up and down rapidly, pumping water from the machine's tub. While the effectiveness of the hand pumper was limited by the volunteers' capacity to pump before becoming exhausted, these pumpers far exceeded the capabilities of the bucket brigades. American manufacturers copied and refined these machines for almost 100 years.

A Revolution In Firefighting Technology

During the early 1800s, a revolution in firefighting technology took place with the development of the steam pumper in England. Steam was created by firing the boiler with coal. The power created was transferred to enable the unit to supply water to hoses. At first, volunteer firefighters strongly opposed the use of the steamer as it was perceived as a threat to their existence. The steam pumper could supply a continuous stream of water more effectively and with far less manpower than hand pumpers.

When steam pumpers were finally accepted into the American fire service, they were, for the most part, hand drawn by firefighters. The first use of horses took place in the 1850s and 1860s. This period coincided with the introduction of paid firefighters who were required to pull apparatus to the scene; consequently, these newly organized paid departments opted to use horses for this purpose. Lighter apparatus were pulled by two horses. Those that were heavier or that responded in hilly districts or in snow were pulled by three horses.

Another major change in fire apparatus design was a direct result of the establishment of paid departments. Early apparatus, because it was pulled to the scene by firefighters, had limited riding positions for personnel. There was never a reason for anyone to ride the apparatus - all personnel were required to pull it. Firefighters in the early paid departments were still running to fires, even though horses were pulling the apparatus. And they were running farther because there were far fewer aid companies than there were volunteer companies that had been replaced. In short, by the time firefighters ran to the scene of many fires, they were already worn out and needed to rest before starting firefighting operations. This was obviously an unacceptable situation and within a few years, apparatus were retrofitted with running boards and back steps to accommodate on-duty firefighters.

To provide a quick knockdown while steamers were being set up and hoselines stretched, as well as to extinguish small fires, the chemical unit was developed. These units carried tanks of bicarbonate of soda that, when activated by sulfuric acid, were expelled through small diameter rubber hose. Most were two-wheel units pulled by one horse, but four-wheel units were also used. Later, chemical equipment was installed on both hose wagons and even on some ladder trucks, providing this option for first-responding units.

Aerial Apparatus Introduced

The first successful aerial ladder was patented in 1868 by Daniel Hayes. It was constructed of wood and required several firefighters to raise by hand through a series of gears and pulleys. The rights to this patent were eventually sold to LaFrance. The Fire Extinguisher Manufacturing Company, Babcock and Dedcrick also developed their own aerial ladders.

In 1879, John Hogan and Abner Greenleaf developed the first water tower. It consisted of a 50-foot mast of pipe sections that had to be assembled to attain the desired height and was then raised manually by cranks and gears. Water towers were capable of delivering a large-capacity elevated stream into the upper floors of burning structures.

During the 1880s, development of cotton-jacketed hose that was capable of being packed flat instead of rubber hose on a reel allowed for a new design in hose tenders, the hose wagon. Prior to this, hose was carried on large reels mounted on two-wheel or four-wheel chassis. These new wagons were also equipped with deck pipes, carried other equipment and supplies, and provided better riding positions than the older hose reels. Most engine companies of this period responded with two pieces of apparatus - a steamer and a hose wagon.

Seagrave developed a spring-assisted raising mechanism for aerial ladders in 1902 that enabled the aerial ladder to be raised swiftly from the bedded position. This was far more efficient and required substantially less manpower. All aerial ladder makers would follow with the development of their own hoisting mechanisms in the early 1900s.

The size and weight of horse-drawn apparatus had grown to the point where most horses running at top speed would begin to slow down after about a half-mile. Studies indicated that a motorized fire company could be operated at about one-third the cost of a similar horse-drawn unit. Like the introduction of steam pumpers, motorized fire apparatus was seen as a threat. Looked at as unreliable, subject to mechanical breakdown and unable to replace the beloved horses, it took several decades for the changeover to take place nationwide.

The year 1906 is generally accepted as the beginning of the motorized age in the American fire service. During that year, a pumper built by Waterous entered service with the Radnor Fire Company in Wayne, PA. This vehicle was equipped with two gasoline motors, one for propelling the vehicle and the other to power the pump. Also during this year, the Combination Ladder Company built a squad body on a Knox chassis and delivered it to Springfield, MA. The introduction of motorized vehicles revolutionized the fire service. Although there was some experimentation with both electric and steam propelled vehicles, gasoline propelled vehicles would replace the horses.

Another off-shoot of motorization was the development of a single piece of apparatus, the triple-combination pumper, that would eventually become the standard apparatus for most engine companies throughout the country. Until that time, most engine companies operated with two distinct apparatus, a steamer and either a hose wagon or combination hose wagon equipped with chemical extinguishment equipment.

The triple-combination pumper incorporated all of these functions onto one motorized vehicle. The first such vehicle was constructed by Tea Tray Company, a small New Jersey builder in 1909, on an American Motors chassis and delivered to Middletown, NY. During the same year, International Motor Company, the forerunner of Mack Trucks, sold a motorized tractor to Allentown, PA. It was used to motorize a former horse-drawn ladder truck, believed to be the first motorized ladder truck in the United States.

Ahrens-Fox introduced an unconventional pumper in 1911. Instead of the conventional design of the time with the engine forward and the pump located under or to the rear of the driver's seat, Ahrens-Fox located its piston pump, characterized by a large chrome ball atop the pump, at the very front of the vehicle, ahead of the motor. These vehicles became known as reliable work horses that served for years.

While newly built motorized apparatus were delivered, during the early years of motorization a large amount of horse-drawn apparatus was motorized by the addition of two-, three- and four-wheel tractors, making for some unusual appearing vehicles. Probably the most popular of these were Christie two-wheel tractors, introduced in 1912. Almost 600 of these units were produced. This practice, which lasted about 10 years, was a much cheaper alternative for departments wanting to rapidly motorize their fleets without the expense of purchasing all new apparatus.

In 1913, Ahrens-Fox introduced a booster car, a small apparatus equipped with a light-duty pump, water tank and hose. This type of apparatus replaced the individual chemical units, but had a relatively short life. This booster equipment was eventually incorporated as standard equipment on newly constructed triple combination pumpers, eliminating the need for separate booster rigs.

Up to this time, the only audible warning device on apparatus was the bell. In 1913, a hand-cranked siren was introduced which was used in conjunction with the bell.

The nation's first unit organized and equipped specifically to handle unusual rescue situations was established in New York City in 1915. Rescue Company 1 carried "oxygen helmets," life lines, pulmotors, line-shooting guns, hand tools, cutting torches and related equipment. Their purpose was to operate at extremely smoky fires such as in subways, cellars, and sub-cellars, perform difficult ventilation, stop ammonia leaks, and rescue collapse victims and trapped firefighters. This unit was the forerunner of the heavy rescue and urban search and rescue units in service throughout the U.S. today.

The following year, Dahill developed an air-operated aerial ladder hoisting mechanism. This device utilized an air compressor to quickly raise an aerial ladder from its bedded position.

By the early 1920s, pneumatic tires were appearing on fire apparatus. This greatly improved the ride over previously used solid-rubber tires, as well as the many still-in-service converted horse-drawn units with metal or wood wheels. At the same time, a new type of apparatus, the quad, began to appear. Many departments at this time operated city service trucks. These were trucks that carried portable ladders and other equipment normally carried by ladder companies, but were not equipped with aerial ladders. These vehicles could be either straight frame or tractor-drawn.

The quad combined the functions of the triple-combination pumper, but was constructed on a stretched chassis capable of carrying the equipment normally carried on the city service truck as well. These units were usually operated by engine companies in lightly developed areas where the height of buildings did not call for an aerial ladder or in areas that were a distance from the nearest ladder company. The quad permitted fire departments to provide limited ladder company functions while saving on manpower and equipment costs.

Ahrens-Fox began producing 75-foot and 85-foot aerial ladders equipped with air-operated Dahill hoists in 1923. An interesting innovation on these units was a double bank arrangement to carry portable ladders, located adjacent to each other under the aerial ladder. Up to this time, ladder trucks had single banks. The double-bank arrangement allowed for carrying additional portable ladders and a lower overall height of the vehicle. It was also unnecessary to disconnect the tiller steering wheel shaft to remove ladders on these vehicles, since this shaft did not pass through the portable ladder rungs as it did on single-bank units.

Although some of the earliest motorized fire apparatus were constructed on commercially available chassis, the vast majority were built by fire apparatus manufacturers on their own custom-built chassis. A trend began to appear in the early 1920s when many commercial vehicle manufacturers started to make their chassis available to fire apparatus manufacturers to mount their body work on. This permitted smaller apparatus manufacturers to specialize in compartmentation body work design and firefighting capabilities while utilizing available vehicle chassis.

The changeover from chain-driven fire apparatus to power trains that were shaft-driven gained momentum during the mid-1920s. By the end of the 1920s, shaft-driven power trains had become standard.

Another milestone in fire apparatus development occurred during 1928, when Pirsch delivered what was probably the first American fire apparatus with an enclosed, custom-built cab. The majority of fire apparatus up to this time were constructed with open cabs, primarily for visibility and size-up when approaching the fire scene and to assist in positioning the apparatus. These cabs were also doorless, to allow firefighters in the cab to spring into action as soon as they arrived. While over 30 years would pass before the enclosed cab became standard, this unit was a first big step.

Apparatus delivered through the 1920s were equipped with right-hand or left-hand drive, depending on the preference of the manufacturer or individual department. By the end of the 1920s, left-hand steering was becoming standard.

In 1929, Mack Trucks introduced an aerial ladder that was raised and lowered through a power-take-off mechanism from the motor. This type of aerial ladder operation, with additions and modifications, would become standard.

Factory-installed windshields became popular on fire apparatus during the early 1930s. Once considered unnecessary, windshields offered a degree of protection from the elements, as well as allowing the driver to see more safely by not having to squint constantly because of wind hitting his unprotected face.

A hydraulic-mechanical aerial ladder mechanism was introduced by Pirsch in 1931. For the first time, all three aerial ladder functions - raise, rotate and extend - could be performed by a single firefighter. Hydraulic lifting cylinders were used to raise the ladder from its bedded position while the turntable was rotated and the aerial extended mechanically. Prior to this, a large number of firefighters were required to manually perform these functions through muscle power.

The first 100-foot aerial ladder was produced by Pirsch in 1935. It was a three-section ladder constructed of metal with handrails on all three sections. Although it would take almost 20 years, metal would replace wood in aerial ladder construction. The introduction of the metal aerial ladder was the death knell of the water towers. The strength of the metal aerial allowed for the placement of ladder pipes at its tip, negating the need for special units to provide this function.

A limited movement toward fully enclosed apparatus took place in the mid-1930s. Several pumper designs were introduced that provided enclosed riding positions for all firefighters. While this was a significant safety development, the concept was ahead of its time and met the usual fire service doubt and skepticism.

American LaFrance started offering 100-foot aerials in 1938, but they differed from those of other manufacturers in being four sections instead of three. This design permitted a shorter overall apparatus length and the design of a permanently fixed tiller seat, tiller wheel and windshield. Three-section ladders required the tiller seat to be placed atop the ladder with the tiller steering column passed between the rungs. On arrival at a scene, the tillerman needed to disassemble and fold the tiller seat, windshield and steering assembly out of the way before the ladder could be raised. American LaFrance's design was far more efficient and innovative, and became an industry standard.

Fire apparatus became somewhat enclosed in the late 1930s, with the introduction of half doors to open-cab models. These doors offered a better degree of protection to those in the cab while affording the maximum visibility provided by the open cab.

The heavy rescue truck began to come of age in the late 1930s. Up to this time, rescue trucks were basically customized hose wagons, usually equipped with two rows of bence seating in the rear body. Specialized equipment was carried inside compartments. The most common design was a walk-through model.

The next revolution in fire apparatus design was the introduction of the cab-forward chassis by American LaFrance in 1939. These vehicles had their cab positioned ahead of the engine instead of behind it as in the conventional design. Cab-forward chassis would eventually be used for the majority of custom-built apparatus by almost all manufacturers. This design provided much better visibility for the driver while also having a better turning radius.

Another innovation introduced to the fire service in 1939 was the diesel engine. The first diesel powered pumper was built by the New Stutz Fire Engine Company, utilizing a Cummins diesel engine. Eventually, every piece of fire apparatus constructed in the United States would utilize diesel power, but widespread use of the diesel would not take place until the 1960s.

Another new type of apparatus would appeared in the late 1930s. Known as the quint, this apparatus added a fifth function, an aerial ladder, to the quad. This vehicle was utilized in the same capacity as the quad, to provide a degree of ladder company functions in less active areas that were remote from conventional ladder companies.

Some major developments came out of World War II. Probably most notable among these were purpose-built airport crash apparatus. These resulted primarily from the development of larger military aircraft, and they were produced in large numbers. After the war, many were put to use at newly developing civilian airfields. Advances in two-way radio technology also resulted from the war, and it wasn't long before fire departments realized the great advantages that two-way radio communications afforded.

An automatic transmission was introduced for fire service use by Mack in 1957. It would take another decade before automatic transmissions made in-roads within the fire apparatus industry. Today, it is a very rare exception to have an apparatus built with a standard transmission.

One of the most important innovations in fire apparatus history took place in Chicago in 1958. A 50-foot utility boom was purchased from Pitman and outfitted with a large basket, monitor and piping, creating firefighting equipment. This spurred a race among other manufacturers to develop firefighting elevating booms. Other firms that developed booms included American LaFrance, Baker, Hi-Ranger, Seagrave and Sutphen. Some of these were telescopic designs, while others were articulated. All were unique in design and construction.

In the late 1950s and early '60s, a small trend developed in the number of rear-mounted aerial ladders being delivered. The trend only lasted a few years, but saw Magirus and Goesink rear-mounted aerials delivered on FWD, Mack, Maxim and Seagrave chassis. It would still be a few more years before these compact, shorter ladder trucks would become commonplace.

The late 1950s also saw the introduction of the air horn on fire apparatus. This was a natural extension of the pneumatic brake systems that were becoming popular. The air horn added to the audible warning capability of apparatus, and many feel, ultimately led to the elimination of the bell.

Electronic sirens began to appear on fire apparatus during the early 1960s. At first, they were installed in addition to the older, louder mechanical sirens. In some cases they replaced the mechanical sirens. Today, the old-style mechanical siren is making a comeback, to supplement the quieter electronic models. Over the years, improvements in automobile soundproofing, coupled with auto entertainment systems, have severely limited the effectiveness of electronic sirens.

In the mid-1960s, major cities throughout the nation experienced episodes of violent civil unrest. Riots and the resulting fires severely overtaxed fire departments, but worse, firefighters and their apparatus became targets. Fire apparatus were bombarded with bricks, bottles, fire bombs and gunshots. Firefighters were killed and injured.

Most apparatus in service at the time were open-cab models, with equipment carried on running boards and other exposed locations, available for rapid use. Inner-city fire companies reacted by constructing makeshift cabs, roof enclosures over the back steps, enclosed tiller seats and even individual personnel enclosures that resembled telephone booths on the apparatus. Some strange-looking apparatus resulted. These events, more than any other single factor, led to the design of crew cabs, where all firefighters rode in enclosed positions, and compartmentation, to carry all tools inside locked compartments.

In 1967, Seagrave introduced its Rear Admiral, a rear-mounted aerial ladder mounted on a custom-built chassis that was equipped with four-wheel steering. This gave the driver the capability of steering the rear wheels from the cab, making the vehicle highly maneuverable in tight, congested street conditions. Only several of these apparatus were constructed and it would be almost 25 years before this option would begin to become popular.

Another design innovation that appeared in 1967 was the top-mounted pump panel. This placed the pump operator in a position that was safely removed from traffic while at the same time, giving the operators better overall view of the fire scene. While there are advantages to this design, many inner city fire departments have stayed clear of it, feeling that it makes the pump operator an easy target.

Snorkel introduced its Squrt articulated boom in 1968. This boom was intended for tactical applications where water was needed in elevated positions. It was a less expensive option than an elevating platform, was intended for mounting on pumpers or hose wagons, and could be easily retrofitted to most existing apparatus.

The middle to late 1960s saw the wide-scale introduction of crosslay hosebeds and pre-connected hoselines. Up to this time, most hose was carried in the rear hosebeds. Pre-connected crosslays offer an option that allows for rapid water application under certain fire conditions.

In the early 1970s, Ward LaFrance created what was probably the most controversial issue ever to hit the apparatus field. By aggressively marketing a new color for fire apparatus, lime green, as being more visible and therefore safer, a wedge was driven into the fire service. Traditionalists stood behind the old standard red, while "progressive" fire service personnel preached the advantages of the new color. At one point, there were actually more apparatus being delivered in the new color than the traditional red. Many fire departments, both large and small, switched to the new color. But after about a decade, departments began to switch back to red. Many apparatus were repainted. Virtually every large department that had gone to the new color returned to red. Currently, few new apparatus are being delivered that are painted lime green.

A new sub-industry emerged within the fire apparatus industry during the early 1980s. Partly because many fire departments were financially strapped and partly because of the skyrocketing costs of new apparatus, it suddenly became popular to refurbish existing older fire apparatus. A total rebuild and overhaul could result in a virtually new apparatus at a fraction of the cost of a new vehicle.

Around the same time, roll-up compartment doors began to appear on American fire apparatus. These had been popular on European fire apparatus for some time.

The 1980s also saw the widespread emergence of specialized vehicles such as hazmat, cave-in rescue, water rescue, decontamination and others. Their design varied greatly and included both older vehicles being converted as well as custom-built new apparatus.

Ever increasing concern for firefighter safety led to the introduction of larger, enclosed cabs that were capable of accommodating more firefighters inside. In 1984, Spartan introduced a Super Command Cab that had seating for two and full stand-up height. Other manufacturers followed suit.

Increasing demand for medical services provided by fire departments sometimes overtaxed available resources. Many solutions have been put into operation. Some departments have modified pumpers to carry an extensive array of advanced life support equipment. A handful of departments have placed pumpers into service that have patient transport capability. Other departments have placed ladder tenders into service as the second piece of ladder companies. The ladder company personnel respond in this apparatus to medical emergencies, drastically cutting back on the wear and tear to the aerial ladder truck.

These ladder tenders carry firefighting tools, equipment and portable ladders so that they can respond to fires when returning from the medical emergency.

Apparatus with rear-mounted engines were introduced by Emergency One in 1985. This Hush design provides a quieter cab environment and better weight distribution, and allows more firefighters to be carried in the cab.

Revised National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards in 1991 had a huge impact on fire apparatus design. All firefighters were required to ride in enclosed, seated positions, that were equipped with seat belts. While the fire service had been moving towards fully enclosed crew cab apparatus for some time, these standards solidified this movement. Several federal laws and mandates also had an impact on fire apparatus design. Engine size, vehicle emissions, axle loading, anti-lock brake systems and other standards have all added to the cost of fire apparatus production, helping to triple the cost of custom-built vehicles over the last two decades, and leading to greater use of commercially available chassis.

The development of multi-function vehicles has become more popular in recent years. The primary cause of this in both paid and volunteer departments has been insufficient staffing. Departments have been attempting to provide more functions with fewer apparatus. These vehicles are usually larger and bulkier, and are generally built on three-axle chassis. Pumper-tankers, rescue-pumpers, hazmat pumpers and paramedic pumpers are becoming popular.

What does the future of fire apparatus design hold? The American fire apparatus industry is in the midst of a restructuring. In recent years, many of the industry's manufacturers have been sold, merged, or gone out of business. This restructuring continues with acquisitions and mergers. The end result is hard to predict, but it's possible that only a handful of major manufacturers or aligned companies will remain.

The trend toward commercial chassis will continue, as will greater use of foreign chassis on which to mount fire apparatus body work. In all probability, American apparatus will resemble European designs to a greater degree. Much of the industry restructuring that is going on involves foreign parent companies that will ultimately look to market their products worldwide. Alternate-fuel vehicles are sure to come, but like the changeover to horses, gasoline and diesel, will be slow to take hold. But, most important, fire apparatus will continue to be interesting, eye-catching vehicles.