The horror of the interior search team becoming trapped on the floor above. The tragedy of a structural collapse occurring, trapping firefighters in debris and rubble. The panic of the truck company becoming cut off from their main means of egress in a commercial building. These are just a few of the scenarios that have occurred over the years and contributed to firefighter fatalities and serious injuries.
The structural firefighting environment is filled with many variables related to building construction, the size/extent of the fire, weather, water supply, apparatus and staffing. In addition, we must consider the many unforeseen factors, such as illegal and substandard construction alterations.
Unfortunately, many in today’s fire service ranks have forgotten—or perhaps were never taught—some of the basic skills necessary to complete our mission of saving life and property in high-risk situations. With this in mind, I would like to use two high-risk scenarios—operating on the floor above and operating at a commercial occupancy—to address critical tactics that will improve the safety of firefighters operating on scene.
Scenario 1: Operating on the floor above
While conducting a primary search on the floor above, the interior search team, consisting of an officer and one or two firefighters, is cut off by rapidly deteriorating fire conditions and now trapped. How can we make one of the most tenuous search scenarios safer for our members? Following are some basic tactics of going to the floor above without the benefit of a charged hoseline.
(Editor’s note: Acknowledging that conducting a search without the support of a charged hoseline is a high-risk tactic, it should be noted that this tactic is NOT intended for all departments and should ONLY be conducted with strict adherence to the guidelines provided.)
Size-up: Observe smoke (position in windows/doors, color, velocity) and fire conditions from the exterior (size/extent, fire location in building), and try to visually access as many sides of the structure as possible. Note windows, doors, balconies, fire escapes, air conditioners, window bars/gates, plywood over window/doors. Are portable ladders and/or aerial ladders in place? Make a mental note of their position and location. What is the positioning of hoselines? What factors do you note about building construction? In balloon-frame construction, undetected fire can rapidly trap firefighters on the floor above. Is the building occupied or is it a vacant? Are victims reported trapped in the building? Gather information from witnesses and question family members on scene.
Communications: Monitor the dispatcher’s reports and initial reports from units that arrived first on scene. Listen to the engine company. Are there any water issues, such as the engine not being connected to a positive water source, problems getting the rig into pump, frozen hydrants, broken hydrant spindle, burst length, problems with the hose stretch, trouble finding the main body of fire, no water on the fire, engine backing out?
Additionally, communicate to the incident commander (IC) your intent to operate on the floor above; this is critical for your teams’ safety and accountability. Communicate with the engine company officer so you have eyes on the fire floor and the officer can alert you to the progress of the nozzle team. These factors must be considered and evaluated before going to the floor above. Further, the radio must be continually monitored while operating.
Face-to-face check: It is important to physically check in with the engine company before making a move to the floor above. Let the engine boss (aka company officer) know that your team is advancing to the floor above, so they can communicate whether fire conditions change and allow your team time to escape. If the engine boss does not know you are operating on the floor above, the search team will be in a world of trouble if the nozzle team backs out and discontinues the fire attack.
Eliminate obstacles: Remove any clutter on the stairs (shoe racks, coat racks, bicycles, boxes, etc.). Clear and remove balusters from stair railings; if you need to bailout down the stairs, this gives you an unencumbered access to the stairs. Try to keep stairs clear. If possible, position a member (preferably an officer) at the bottom of the stairs. This will keep other members off the stairs, and the officer can account for the number of members operating on the floor above.
Limit openings: If your team entered from the exterior, clear the window. Take the sash and make the window a door; this could be your main means of egress. Leave the sash in any remaining windows.
Close the door to the room you entered as quickly as practical to isolate the fire and not draw the fire to your position. Leave a tool, hand light or additional member at the window to help identify your way out should conditions change. Do not take windows without having water on the fire or having a handline in place on the floor above.
Depending upon heat conditions, a small observation hole or holes may be a good idea. This may be accomplished by inserting your Halligan tool into the baseboard to check fire in a wall/bay. This will also confirm balloon/platform-frame construction.
Check voids/pipe recesses and closets for vertical fire extension. In attics, make a small observation hole in the knee wall as soon as practical. Only a very small opening is advisable (6 to 12 inches in size) without a handline in place. If fire is discovered, immediately call for an additional handline to the floor above, and retreat to a position of egress until the line is in position. The thermal imaging camera (TIC) is a very important tool that can help find fire and victims while conducting operations on the floor above.
Secure an area of refuge: This tactic varies according to the occupancy type (private dwelling, multi-story apartment building, high rise, etc.). In a private dwelling, the only area of refuge may be an interior unenclosed stairway or a well-positioned ladder. In an apartment building, the area of refuge may be an adjacent apartment (force the door immediately to establish an area of refuge) or possibly an enclosed stairwell. A tactic that will provide a degree of safety is to position a firefighter as a “beacon”; this firefighter can keep in voice contact with the members conducting the search.
Scenario 2: Operating at a commercial occupancy
Your truck company arrives first or second due to a fire in a commercial occupancy. Upon arrival, units encounter a light to medium smoke condition. Six minutes after arrival, the truck officer transmits a mayday, reporting that his inside team is trapped by a rapidly deteriorating fire condition. This scenario and similar situations have been repeated throughout the years with catastrophic results:
· Oct. 17, 1966—12 FDNY firefighters were killed at 23rd Street fire in Manhattan; a floor collapsed into the cellar
· Aug. 2, 1978—six FDNY firefighters were killed at the Waldbaum’s Supermarket fire in Brooklyn, following a bowstring truss roof collapse
· Dec. 3, 1999—six firefighters were killed after becoming lost and disorientated at the Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire
· June 18, 2007—nine Charleston, SC, firefighters became lost and disoriented before perishing at the Sofa Super Store fire
These fires occurred at all different times, and in urban and suburban settings. Following are some measures that will make our mission safer for forces operating inside commercial occupancies.
Size-up: Time of day is a critical piece of information that can aid in the risk vs. reward model. Consider a commercial occupancy housing a law office, accounting firm and a dentist office at 3 a.m. vs. a second-floor nightclub at 11 p.m. The fire in the professional building will likely not have occupants, while the nightclub will be heavily occupied. It is vital to gather information from occupants/workers and security guards as to number of people still inside and their general whereabouts.
There are many factors to consider related to building itself, including the size of the building (15 x 50-foot, one-story bodega vs. 40,000-sq.-ft. warehouse), number of stories, window vs. windowless, exit doors, material types (wood frame, heavy timber, fire resistive, fire proof). We must also consider roof construction, roll-bar truss, bowstring truss, wood truss, gypsum plank, metal Q-decking, asphalt, membrane. On the roof we must consider the presence of skylights, skylights that may have been roofed over, scuttles, open shafts, bulkheads, heavy machinery, HVAC units and how they are secured.
The fire and smoke conditions upon arrival may not always indicate the size and extent of the fire. Roll-down gates may conceal the fire, and compartmentation/partitioning of the building and size of the building may hide the volume of fire. Is there a preplan in place or does the department have Critical Information Dispatch System (CIDS) that will alert units of any alterations, unique construction features, potential dangerous areas, and hazardous or unusual condition that may not be apparent to units from outside the building? In gathering this information, the IC (or first officer on scene) can formulate an operational plan. The decisions that are made in these crucial first few minutes will dictate the outcome of the fire and the safety of the operating forces.
Time: How long has the fire been burning? Steel and engineered structural components have a finite amount of time before they fail when exposed to fire. The IC must pay constant attention to how much time has elapsed. Other factors that the IC must consider: Has the inside team found the main body of fire? Does the engine company have water on the fire? Are fire conditions improving (observing visible fire and smoke conditions from the exterior)? If the answer to these questions is “no,” the IC must consider withdrawing forces and mount a defensive attack.
Coordination of the search and line placement: In residential structural fires, the search team can take a more aggressive approach to conducting a primary search. Residential buildings tend to be smaller, have windows and multiple means of egress available. Commercial buildings can be maze-like, have large open spaces, unexpected obstacles, mezzanines, multiple office cubicles, self-closing and locking doors, to name just a few hazards.
The handline and search team must be within verbal range of each other. If there is too much separation between the two teams, the search team may become cut off and trapped. The search team must continually observe fire conditions using the TIC and use hooks to open overhead spaces. The hose team extinguishes fires as the search team advances through the building. A common mistake search teams make is to not open ceilings completely. When using the hook, do not just pull down the ceiling tiles; make sure the hook exposes void spaces between floors or the underside of the roof. It is common to have multiple ceilings due to building renovations. If left unchecked, the hose and search teams can have fire burning overhead and behind them.
Search rope: This is a critical piece of equipment at commercial building fires. I recommend using a TIC when using a search rope, and make mental notes of landmarks as you search. Tie off in a clear area outside the building (telephone pole, parking meters, signs; never use a piece of apparatus). In a multi-story building, tie off in an enclosed stairwell one or two floors below the fire floor. Tie off as often as practical and, if possible, at all changes of direction. Keep the rope high, at least 2 feet off the floor, as once the rope lies on the floor, it is hard to discern the rope in water with a gloved hand. It is important to remember that the distance traveled in with a search rope is the same distance that must be traveled to exit the IDLH. As such, pay attention to your air supply (heads-up display in facepiece); if you consumed half of your air supply going in, you only have half a cylinder to exit.
Cellars/floor below/adjacent occupancies: In buildings with cellars, always check the cellar as early in the operation as possible. Commercial building fires can become unpredictable, as in the case of the Deutsche Bank fire in Manhattan, where two firefighters became trapped in the maze-like conditions of a high-rise building. The fire began on the 17th floor and dropped down to the 15th floor. If a high-heat condition is encountered without any visible fire, immediately check the floor below.
Reduce your risks
Firefighting is an inherently dangerous occupation. Through training, knowledge of building construction, and preplanning we can reduce our risks. Stay low!
